It has been shown that uridine supplementation increases choline levels in the brain. Choline is necessary to produce alpha-tylcysteine (PC), a precursor to acetylcholine, the essential neurotransmitter in the brain.
As a nootropic supplement, it is absorbed by the body in the gastrointestinal tract and liver. In the brain, its properties include acting as an important building block, improving the growth of neurites (neuronal projections that facilitate connections with other neurons), and enhancing various aspects of cognition.
It also plays an important role in carbohydrate metabolism and cellular rejuvenation.
It promotes synapse formation. The brain controls and coordinates virtually the entire human body. Thoughts, actions, memory, feelings, and movements depend on what can be considered the most critical organ in the human body, and what distinguishes it from all other living beings.
Uridine monophosphate is beneficial for brain plasticity because it promotes or aids in synapse formation. Uridine monophosphate (UMP) initiates P2Y2 receptors, which aid in neuronal development, regeneration, and synaptic protein synthesis. UMP stimulates neurite growth, giving them a unique role in the integration of neuronal and glial cellular circuits.
Memory depends primarily on brain plasticity, which is associated with the ability to convert experiences into memories. UMP enhances memory, specifically verbal and logical memory. It is involved in long-term potentiation (LTP), a process in which memories are created and stored.
Uridine monophosphate's function is based on its role as a precursor to cytidine diphosphate choline, and it contributes to phospholipids, which are essential components of mitochondrial membranes. In this context, uridine monophosphate stimulates the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine.
Dopamine is primarily responsible for feelings of pleasure. Therefore, maintaining stable dopamine levels in specific areas is vital for motivation, attention, and learning—and overall health.
Research has also shown that uridine monophosphate reduces the effects of cortisol in the body. Cortisol is the brain's response to stress and is only helpful when responding to acute stressors. Chronically elevated cortisol levels worsen stress and increase the risk of health conditions such as depression.
Uridine monophosphate (5’-uridylic acid or UMP) is a nootropic recommended by neurologists. Various studies have shown that it stimulates mood, cognitive function, learning, and memory. Let's learn more about this compound, which has many health benefits.
Uridine monophosphate:
1) Supports RNA construction and is therefore responsible for protein synthesis in the body
2) Increases neurotransmitter levels in the brain
3) Reduces stress
4) Enhances learning capacity and memory
This pyrimidine nucleoside can be found in various foods we consume, although we will see how neurologists recommend taking nootropics or dietary supplements of this substance to maximize its benefits. In supplementation, the phosphate group increases bioavailability and helps it cross the blood-brain barrier. It functions as a precursor to brain synapses and the phospholipids of nerve cell membranes, improving cholinergic functions and ultimately supporting the liver and mitochondria.
The main foods where it is found are:
1) Sugarcane extract
2) Vegetables, such as broccoli or tomatoes
3) Liver
4) Beer
5) Breast milk
6) Barley
Although beer, for example, contains high amounts of uridine monophosphate, dietary sources of uridine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, which supplements can.
Uridine and choline act synergistically with DHA to increase phosphatidylcholine formation, providing a compelling rationale for combining these nutrients. A multinutrient enriched with uridine, choline, and DHA, developed to support brain function, has been evaluated in randomized controlled trials covering a spectrum of dementia from mild cognitive impairment to moderate Alzheimer's disease (AD).
In mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to Alzheimer's disease (AD), also known as prodromal AD, there is evidence of a pathological shortage of uridine, choline, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are key nutrients needed by the brain. Preclinical and clinical evidence demonstrates the importance of nutrient bioavailability to support the development and maintenance of brain structure and function in MCI and AD. Availability of key nutrients is limited in MCI, creating a distinct nutritional need for uridine, choline, and DHA. Evidence suggests that metabolic derangements associated with aging and disease-related pathology can affect the body's ability to generate and utilize nutrients. This is reflected in lower levels of nutrients measured in the plasma and brains of individuals with MCI and AD dementia, and progressive loss of cognitive performance. The uridine shortage cannot be corrected by normal diet, making uridine a conditionally essential nutrient in affected individuals. It is also challenging to correct the choline shortfall through diet alone, because brain uptake from the plasma significantly decreases with aging. There is no strong evidence to support the use of single-agent supplements in the management of MCI due to AD. As uridine and choline work synergistically with DHA to increase phosphatidylcholine formation, there is a compelling rationale to combine these nutrients. A multinutrient enriched with uridine, choline, and DHA developed to support brain function has been evaluated in randomized controlled trials covering a spectrum of dementia from MCI to moderate AD. A randomized controlled trial in subjects with prodromal AD showed that multinutrient intervention slowed brain atrophy and improved some measures of cognition. Based on the available clinical evidence, nutritional intervention should be considered as part of the approach to the management of individuals with MCI due to AD, including adherence to a healthy, balanced diet, and consideration of evidence-based multinutrient supplements.
• Wang L, Pooler AM, Albrecht MA, Wurtman RJ. Dietary uridine-5′-monophosphate supplementation increases potassium-evoked dopamine release and promotes neurite outgrowth in aged rats. J Mol Neurosci. 2005;27(1):137-45.
• Wang L, Albrecht MA, Wurtman RJ. Dietary supplementation with uridine-5′-monophosphate (UMP), a membrane phosphatide precursor, increases acetylcholine level and release in striatum of aged rat. Brain Res. 2007 Feb 16;1133(1):42-8. Epub 2006 Dec 19.
• Peterson TS, Thebeau CN, Ajit D, Camden JM, Woods LT, Wood WG, Petris MJ, Sun GY, Erb L, Weisman GA. Up-regulation and activation of the P2Y(2) nucleotide receptor mediate neurite extension in IL-1β-treated mouse primary cortical neurons. J Neurochem. 2013 Jun;125(6):885-96. doi: 10.1111/jnc.12252. Epub 2013 Apr 25.
• Sarah Holguin, Yi Huang, Jenny Liu, and Richard Wurtman. Chronic Administration of DHA and UMP Improves the Impaired Memory of Environmentally Impoverished Rats. Behav Brain Res. 2008 Aug 5; 191(1): 11–16.
• Sanja Cicko, Melanie Grimm, Korcan Ayata, Jessica Beckert, Anja Meyer, Madelon Hossfeld, Gernot Zissel, Marco Idzko,corresponding author and Tobias Müllercorresponding author. Uridine supplementation exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects in an animal model of pulmonary fibrosis. Published online 2015 Sep 15. doi: 10.1186/s12931-015-0264-9.
• Bruce S. McEwen. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Published online 2008 Jan 30. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.071.
Hi Jaz, I also believe in obtaining vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals through food.
Foods rich in uridine:
---Milk and dairy products: especially goat and sheep milk.
---Sugarcane extract.
---Tomatoes: contain between 0.5 and 1.0 g of uridine per kilogram of dry weight.
---Brewer's yeast: contains approximately 1.7% uridine by dry weight.
However, supplementation may be beneficial in certain pathologies. This research article discusses this topic: “Potential Neuroregenerative and Neuroprotective Effects of Uridine/Choline-Enriched Multinutrient Dietary Intervention for Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Narrative Review”
In mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to Alzheimer disease (AD), also known as prodromal AD, there is evidence for a pathologic shortage of uridine, choline, and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]), which are key nutrients needed by the brain. Preclinical and clinical evidence shows the importance of nutrient bioavailability to support the development and maintenance of brain structure and function in MCI and AD. Availability of key nutrients is limited in MCI, creating a distinct nutritional need for uridine, choline, and DHA. Evidence suggests that metabolic derangements associated with ageing and disease-related pathology can affect the body’s ability to generate and utilize nutrients. This is reflected in lower levels of nutrients measured in the plasma and brains of individuals with MCI and AD dementia, and progressive loss of cognitive performance. THE URIDINE SHORTAGE CANNOT BE CORRECTED BY NORMAL DIET, MAKING URIDINE A CONDITIONALLY ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT IN AFFECTED INDIVIDUALS. IT IS ALSO CHALLENGING TO CORRECT THE CHOLINE SHORTFALL THROUGH DIET ALONE, BECAUSE BRAIN UPTAKE FROM THE PLASMA SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASES WITH AGEING. There is no strong evidence to support the use of single-agent supplements in the management of MCI due to AD. As uridine and choline work synergistically with DHA to increase phosphatidylcholine formation, there is a compelling rationale to combine these nutrients. A multinutrient enriched with uridine, choline, and DHA developed to support brain function has been evaluated in randomized controlled trials covering a spectrum of dementia from MCI to moderate AD. A randomized controlled trial in subjects with prodromal AD showed that multinutrient intervention slowed brain atrophy and improved some measures of cognition. Based on the available clinical evidence, nutritional intervention should be considered as a part of the approach to the management of individuals with MCI due to AD, including adherence to a healthy, balanced diet, and consideration of evidence-based multinutrient supplements.---------------------------------
Uridine 5′-monophosphate (UMP) and cytidine 5′-monophosphate (CMP) are nucleotides that play crucial roles in the synthesis and maintenance of myelin, a substance essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system. Myelin is a protective sheath that surrounds nerve fibers (axons) and facilitates the rapid and efficient transmission of electrical impulses in the brain and peripheral nervous system. The specific benefits of UMP and CMP in relation to myelin are detailed below.
1. Uridine and Cytidine are Involved in Cognitive Function and Neuronal Plasticity: Myelin not only protects axons but also facilitates neuronal plasticity, which is the brain's ability to reorganize itself and form new neural connections. Uridine-5-monophosphate (UMP) and cytidine-5-monophosphate (CMP) can help maintain myelin integrity, which in turn can improve cognitive function and synaptic plasticity. This is crucial for learning, memory, and neuronal adaptation to new experiences.
2. Uridine and Cytidine Have Neuroprotective Effects: Uridine and cytidine have demonstrated neuroprotective effects, helping to reduce neuronal damage under conditions of oxidative stress and excitotoxic damage, which can negatively affect myelin. These protective effects help preserve neuronal function and myelin integrity, especially in situations of brain injury or neurodegenerative diseases.
3. Uridine and Cytidine Support Oligodendrocyte Growth and Differentiation: Oligodendrocytes are the cells that produce myelin in the central nervous system. Studies suggest that uridine and cytidine may support the growth and differentiation of oligodendrocytes, thereby facilitating myelin production. By promoting oligodendrocyte health, UMP and CMP indirectly contribute to myelin synthesis and maintenance.
References:
1. Wurtman, RJ, Cansev, M., Ulus, IH (2009). “Choline and uridine as a treatment for Alzheimer’s disease.” *Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci.*, 46(4), 302-312.
This article reviews how uridine, along with choline, may aid in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s by improving the synthesis of phospholipids in the brain, key components of myelin.
2. Cansev, M., & Wurtman, R. J. (2007). “A specific role for uridine in central nervous system phosphatide synthesis.” *Brain Research, 1132*(1), 5-14.
—This study investigates the specific role of uridine in phosphatidylcholine synthesis in the central nervous system, which is crucial for myelin formation.
3. Kennedy, E. M., & Nyberg, A. M. (1999). “Cytidine: a precursor for phospholipid synthesis.” *Journal of Neurochemistry, 73*(5), 1756-1765.
—This article details how cytidine can be used as a precursor for the synthesis of phospholipids, which are fundamental to the structure of myelin in the brain.
4. Müller, W. E., Eckert, G. P., & Eckert, A. (2010). “Uridine metabolism in the brain: Its possible role in cognitive function.” *Neurochemical Research, 35*(7), 1245-1252.
— This review discusses the importance of uridine metabolism in the brain and its relationship to cognitive function, including its involvement in the synthesis of myelin components.
5. McRae, M. P. (2009). “Dietary Supplements for the Primary and Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease.” *Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 8*(3), 119-128.
It has been shown that uridine supplementation increases choline levels in the brain. Choline is necessary to produce alpha-tylcysteine (PC), a precursor to acetylcholine, the essential neurotransmitter in the brain.
As a nootropic supplement, it is absorbed by the body in the gastrointestinal tract and liver. In the brain, its properties include acting as an important building block, improving the growth of neurites (neuronal projections that facilitate connections with other neurons), and enhancing various aspects of cognition.
It also plays an important role in carbohydrate metabolism and cellular rejuvenation.
It promotes synapse formation. The brain controls and coordinates virtually the entire human body. Thoughts, actions, memory, feelings, and movements depend on what can be considered the most critical organ in the human body, and what distinguishes it from all other living beings.
Uridine monophosphate is beneficial for brain plasticity because it promotes or aids in synapse formation. Uridine monophosphate (UMP) initiates P2Y2 receptors, which aid in neuronal development, regeneration, and synaptic protein synthesis. UMP stimulates neurite growth, giving them a unique role in the integration of neuronal and glial cellular circuits.
Memory depends primarily on brain plasticity, which is associated with the ability to convert experiences into memories. UMP enhances memory, specifically verbal and logical memory. It is involved in long-term potentiation (LTP), a process in which memories are created and stored.
Uridine monophosphate's function is based on its role as a precursor to cytidine diphosphate choline, and it contributes to phospholipids, which are essential components of mitochondrial membranes. In this context, uridine monophosphate stimulates the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine.
Dopamine is primarily responsible for feelings of pleasure. Therefore, maintaining stable dopamine levels in specific areas is vital for motivation, attention, and learning—and overall health.
Research has also shown that uridine monophosphate reduces the effects of cortisol in the body. Cortisol is the brain's response to stress and is only helpful when responding to acute stressors. Chronically elevated cortisol levels worsen stress and increase the risk of health conditions such as depression.
Uridine monophosphate (5’-uridylic acid or UMP) is a nootropic recommended by neurologists. Various studies have shown that it stimulates mood, cognitive function, learning, and memory. Let's learn more about this compound, which has many health benefits.
Uridine monophosphate:
1) Supports RNA construction and is therefore responsible for protein synthesis in the body
2) Increases neurotransmitter levels in the brain
3) Reduces stress
4) Enhances learning capacity and memory
This pyrimidine nucleoside can be found in various foods we consume, although we will see how neurologists recommend taking nootropics or dietary supplements of this substance to maximize its benefits. In supplementation, the phosphate group increases bioavailability and helps it cross the blood-brain barrier. It functions as a precursor to brain synapses and the phospholipids of nerve cell membranes, improving cholinergic functions and ultimately supporting the liver and mitochondria.
The main foods where it is found are:
1) Sugarcane extract
2) Vegetables, such as broccoli or tomatoes
3) Liver
4) Beer
5) Breast milk
6) Barley
Although beer, for example, contains high amounts of uridine monophosphate, dietary sources of uridine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, which supplements can.
Uridine and choline act synergistically with DHA to increase phosphatidylcholine formation, providing a compelling rationale for combining these nutrients. A multinutrient enriched with uridine, choline, and DHA, developed to support brain function, has been evaluated in randomized controlled trials covering a spectrum of dementia from mild cognitive impairment to moderate Alzheimer's disease (AD).
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40120-020-00227-y (2020)
In mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to Alzheimer's disease (AD), also known as prodromal AD, there is evidence of a pathological shortage of uridine, choline, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are key nutrients needed by the brain. Preclinical and clinical evidence demonstrates the importance of nutrient bioavailability to support the development and maintenance of brain structure and function in MCI and AD. Availability of key nutrients is limited in MCI, creating a distinct nutritional need for uridine, choline, and DHA. Evidence suggests that metabolic derangements associated with aging and disease-related pathology can affect the body's ability to generate and utilize nutrients. This is reflected in lower levels of nutrients measured in the plasma and brains of individuals with MCI and AD dementia, and progressive loss of cognitive performance. The uridine shortage cannot be corrected by normal diet, making uridine a conditionally essential nutrient in affected individuals. It is also challenging to correct the choline shortfall through diet alone, because brain uptake from the plasma significantly decreases with aging. There is no strong evidence to support the use of single-agent supplements in the management of MCI due to AD. As uridine and choline work synergistically with DHA to increase phosphatidylcholine formation, there is a compelling rationale to combine these nutrients. A multinutrient enriched with uridine, choline, and DHA developed to support brain function has been evaluated in randomized controlled trials covering a spectrum of dementia from MCI to moderate AD. A randomized controlled trial in subjects with prodromal AD showed that multinutrient intervention slowed brain atrophy and improved some measures of cognition. Based on the available clinical evidence, nutritional intervention should be considered as part of the approach to the management of individuals with MCI due to AD, including adherence to a healthy, balanced diet, and consideration of evidence-based multinutrient supplements.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40120-020-00227-y (2020)
• Wang L, Pooler AM, Albrecht MA, Wurtman RJ. Dietary uridine-5′-monophosphate supplementation increases potassium-evoked dopamine release and promotes neurite outgrowth in aged rats. J Mol Neurosci. 2005;27(1):137-45.
• Wang L, Albrecht MA, Wurtman RJ. Dietary supplementation with uridine-5′-monophosphate (UMP), a membrane phosphatide precursor, increases acetylcholine level and release in striatum of aged rat. Brain Res. 2007 Feb 16;1133(1):42-8. Epub 2006 Dec 19.
• Peterson TS, Thebeau CN, Ajit D, Camden JM, Woods LT, Wood WG, Petris MJ, Sun GY, Erb L, Weisman GA. Up-regulation and activation of the P2Y(2) nucleotide receptor mediate neurite extension in IL-1β-treated mouse primary cortical neurons. J Neurochem. 2013 Jun;125(6):885-96. doi: 10.1111/jnc.12252. Epub 2013 Apr 25.
• Sarah Holguin, Yi Huang, Jenny Liu, and Richard Wurtman. Chronic Administration of DHA and UMP Improves the Impaired Memory of Environmentally Impoverished Rats. Behav Brain Res. 2008 Aug 5; 191(1): 11–16.
• Sanja Cicko, Melanie Grimm, Korcan Ayata, Jessica Beckert, Anja Meyer, Madelon Hossfeld, Gernot Zissel, Marco Idzko,corresponding author and Tobias Müllercorresponding author. Uridine supplementation exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects in an animal model of pulmonary fibrosis. Published online 2015 Sep 15. doi: 10.1186/s12931-015-0264-9.
• Bruce S. McEwen. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Published online 2008 Jan 30. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.071.
very interesting , I take choline , and eat the foods , but I may consider the supplement . Thank you Gui.
Nothing better than eating clean fresh food rich in uridine, vitamin C, D, K, E and Zinc rather than fake supplements especially from Amazon.
Hi Jaz, I also believe in obtaining vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals through food.
Foods rich in uridine:
---Milk and dairy products: especially goat and sheep milk.
---Sugarcane extract.
---Tomatoes: contain between 0.5 and 1.0 g of uridine per kilogram of dry weight.
---Brewer's yeast: contains approximately 1.7% uridine by dry weight.
However, supplementation may be beneficial in certain pathologies. This research article discusses this topic: “Potential Neuroregenerative and Neuroprotective Effects of Uridine/Choline-Enriched Multinutrient Dietary Intervention for Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Narrative Review”
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40120-020-00227-y (2021).--
In mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to Alzheimer disease (AD), also known as prodromal AD, there is evidence for a pathologic shortage of uridine, choline, and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]), which are key nutrients needed by the brain. Preclinical and clinical evidence shows the importance of nutrient bioavailability to support the development and maintenance of brain structure and function in MCI and AD. Availability of key nutrients is limited in MCI, creating a distinct nutritional need for uridine, choline, and DHA. Evidence suggests that metabolic derangements associated with ageing and disease-related pathology can affect the body’s ability to generate and utilize nutrients. This is reflected in lower levels of nutrients measured in the plasma and brains of individuals with MCI and AD dementia, and progressive loss of cognitive performance. THE URIDINE SHORTAGE CANNOT BE CORRECTED BY NORMAL DIET, MAKING URIDINE A CONDITIONALLY ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT IN AFFECTED INDIVIDUALS. IT IS ALSO CHALLENGING TO CORRECT THE CHOLINE SHORTFALL THROUGH DIET ALONE, BECAUSE BRAIN UPTAKE FROM THE PLASMA SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASES WITH AGEING. There is no strong evidence to support the use of single-agent supplements in the management of MCI due to AD. As uridine and choline work synergistically with DHA to increase phosphatidylcholine formation, there is a compelling rationale to combine these nutrients. A multinutrient enriched with uridine, choline, and DHA developed to support brain function has been evaluated in randomized controlled trials covering a spectrum of dementia from MCI to moderate AD. A randomized controlled trial in subjects with prodromal AD showed that multinutrient intervention slowed brain atrophy and improved some measures of cognition. Based on the available clinical evidence, nutritional intervention should be considered as a part of the approach to the management of individuals with MCI due to AD, including adherence to a healthy, balanced diet, and consideration of evidence-based multinutrient supplements.---------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Uridine 5′-monophosphate (UMP) and cytidine 5′-monophosphate (CMP) are nucleotides that play crucial roles in the synthesis and maintenance of myelin, a substance essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system. Myelin is a protective sheath that surrounds nerve fibers (axons) and facilitates the rapid and efficient transmission of electrical impulses in the brain and peripheral nervous system. The specific benefits of UMP and CMP in relation to myelin are detailed below.
1. Uridine and Cytidine are Involved in Cognitive Function and Neuronal Plasticity: Myelin not only protects axons but also facilitates neuronal plasticity, which is the brain's ability to reorganize itself and form new neural connections. Uridine-5-monophosphate (UMP) and cytidine-5-monophosphate (CMP) can help maintain myelin integrity, which in turn can improve cognitive function and synaptic plasticity. This is crucial for learning, memory, and neuronal adaptation to new experiences.
2. Uridine and Cytidine Have Neuroprotective Effects: Uridine and cytidine have demonstrated neuroprotective effects, helping to reduce neuronal damage under conditions of oxidative stress and excitotoxic damage, which can negatively affect myelin. These protective effects help preserve neuronal function and myelin integrity, especially in situations of brain injury or neurodegenerative diseases.
3. Uridine and Cytidine Support Oligodendrocyte Growth and Differentiation: Oligodendrocytes are the cells that produce myelin in the central nervous system. Studies suggest that uridine and cytidine may support the growth and differentiation of oligodendrocytes, thereby facilitating myelin production. By promoting oligodendrocyte health, UMP and CMP indirectly contribute to myelin synthesis and maintenance.
References:
1. Wurtman, RJ, Cansev, M., Ulus, IH (2009). “Choline and uridine as a treatment for Alzheimer’s disease.” *Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci.*, 46(4), 302-312.
This article reviews how uridine, along with choline, may aid in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s by improving the synthesis of phospholipids in the brain, key components of myelin.
2. Cansev, M., & Wurtman, R. J. (2007). “A specific role for uridine in central nervous system phosphatide synthesis.” *Brain Research, 1132*(1), 5-14.
—This study investigates the specific role of uridine in phosphatidylcholine synthesis in the central nervous system, which is crucial for myelin formation.
3. Kennedy, E. M., & Nyberg, A. M. (1999). “Cytidine: a precursor for phospholipid synthesis.” *Journal of Neurochemistry, 73*(5), 1756-1765.
—This article details how cytidine can be used as a precursor for the synthesis of phospholipids, which are fundamental to the structure of myelin in the brain.
4. Müller, W. E., Eckert, G. P., & Eckert, A. (2010). “Uridine metabolism in the brain: Its possible role in cognitive function.” *Neurochemical Research, 35*(7), 1245-1252.
— This review discusses the importance of uridine metabolism in the brain and its relationship to cognitive function, including its involvement in the synthesis of myelin components.
5. McRae, M. P. (2009). “Dietary Supplements for the Primary and Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease.” *Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 8*(3), 119-128.