Research on a rare fat-loss disorder shows that when the body loses functional fat cells, blood sugar control worsens, triglycerides rise, and harmful fatty acids increase in the bloodstream.
Yes, current evidence suggests that berberine may modestly help with obesity and metabolic syndrome. The typical magnitude observed in trials is small to moderate: around 1–3 kg of weight loss and modest reductions in BMI and waist circumference, especially in people with insulin resistance or metabolic syndrome.
Some proposed mechanisms include:
• activation of AMPK (“cellular energy sensor”),
• improved insulin sensitivity,
• reduced hepatic lipogenesis,
• changes in gut microbiota,
• mild effect on appetite and postprandial glucose.
In practice, current evidence points to:
---useful as an adjunct,
---more effective in cases of insulin resistance/prediabetes,
---generally moderate effect,
---does not replace diet or exercise.
The AMPK pathway is usually summarized as follows:
AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) is a cellular energy sensor. It is activated when the cell "senses" a low energy level (↑AMP/ATP). When activated:
1) It inhibits lipogenesis (fat synthesis). 1) Phosphorylates and inhibits acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC)
2) Decreases malonyl-CoA, fatty acid synthesis, and the activity of lipogenic factors such as SREBP-1c
3) Increases fat oxidation, increases fatty acid uptake into mitochondria, and β-oxidation
As Dr. Mercola always advises, consider a healthy diet, and don't forget fiber.
1) The stable satiety effect of fiber, especially soluble fiber, is due to its ability to absorb water and form a viscous gel in the digestive tract. This promotes slow gastric acidity, producing a feeling of fullness after eating and stimulating the release of hormones like GLP-1 and PYY in the gut, which send direct signals to the brain to reduce appetite.
2) By preventing sharp spikes in blood glucose, fiber reduces the excessive secretion of insulin, the main hormone for fat storage, making it easier for the body to access its own adipose tissue reserves for energy.
3) High-fiber foods usually require more chewing time. This gives the brain time to register that the body is receiving food. Vegetables and legumes allow you to consume a larger volume of food with a significantly lower calorie intake compared to processed foods. Soluble fiber, such as oats, legumes, flax seeds, carrots, etc., forms a gel that reduces cholesterol and controls blood sugar. Insoluble fiber, such as wheat bran, fruit peels, nuts, and leafy greens, accelerates digestion and adds bulk. Combining whole grains, tubers, seeds, and plenty of cruciferous or leafy vegetables provides the full spectrum of benefits.
4) When fiber reaches the colon, it is fermented by the gut microbiota. This process produces byproducts called short-chain fatty acids, which improve insulin sensitivity and stimulate fat burning by increasing basal metabolic rate. Cooked and cooled rice or potatoes, and legumes, feed beneficial bacteria and improve metabolism.
The concept of the Satiety Index (SI) was popularized by the study of Dr. Susanna Holt. In the plant world, this index reveals surprising facts: not all carbohydrates are equally filling, and the structure of the food is just as important as its calories.
There are a few common characteristics of highly satiating foods.
1) Foods that are more filling (i.e., have a high satiety index) tend to have more protein. Protein is considered to be more filling than either carbohydrates or fats.
2) They also tend to have more fiber. Because fiber is not digested, it provides bulk. This bulk tends to help you feel full longer because it slows down emptying of the stomach and digestion time.
3) Highly satiating foods tend to have more volume for the same amount of calories; this means they tend to take up more space with water or air.
4) Highly satiating foods are also generally whole and less processed.
Eliminate ultra-processed foods with added toxins that make them tastier and more calorie-dense, which contribute to all kinds of metabolic diseases. Along these lines, we can consider:
1. HYPERPALATABILITY
Ultra-processed foods (UPFs)—according to the NOVA classification—not only provide calories, but also alter several physiological and behavioral mechanisms that promote weight gain.
UPFs are designed with combinations of sugar, fat, salt, and flavor enhancers, which strongly activate the reward circuits (dopamine), increasing appetite, facilitating "eating for pleasure," and decreasing the feeling of satiety. See the graphic summary in the first link: In the ultra-processed diet, with approximately 500 kcal/day more than spontaneously consumed foods, participants gained weight, while those on the minimally processed diet lost weight. The diets were matched for calories, sugar, fat, fiber, and macronutrients.
Recent reviews continue to confirm that ultra-processed foods allow for the consumption of a large amount of energy in a small volume and very quickly.
Ultra-processed foods reduce bacterial diversity and promote bacteria associated with obesity, leading to increased energy extraction from food and metabolic inflammation.
Rapid glucose spikes cause hyperinsulinemia and possible leptin resistance, leading to a lack of satiety. Furthermore, altered ghrelin levels trigger increased hunger. This creates a vicious cycle of frequent hunger and greater fat storage.
The same NIH study showed that processed foods result in a lower thermic effect of food, with less digestive energy expenditure and increased fat storage.
AN EXAMPLE OF A CLEARLY “CHEMICALLY-INDUSTRIAL” ULTRA-PROCESSED “FOOD” IN 2026: FLAMIN' HOT CHEETOS
Actual composition (USA 2026). According to recent commercial labels:
--Enriched corn flour
--Vegetable oils (corn/canola/sunflower)
--Maltodextrin
--MSG (monosodium glutamate)
--Yeast extract
--Hydrolyzed corn protein
--Sugar
--Citric acid
--Natural and artificial flavors
--Whey
--Disodium inosinate
--Disodium guanylate
--Sodium diacetate
--Artificial colors: Red 40 Lake, Yellow 6 Lake, Yellow 6, Yellow 5
It is designed to maximize brain reward. Companies literally seek the point of maximum food pleasure, endorphin release, and sensory reinforcement. In many people, this increases the compulsive behavior of "keeping eating."
Ultra-processed additives: Contains multiple flavor enhancers: MSG, inosinate, guanylate, and hydrolyzed protein. All of these increase the perception of "umami" flavor and palatability.
California has even passed school restrictions on products with these additives.
TYPICAL RESULT: HIGH CALORIES + LITTLE SATIETY + DESIRE FOR MORE.
Deep dive into the weeds Gui, showing how the old commercials tag line - betcha can't eat just one., had much more behind the slogan than it would have appeared - back in the day! Adds weight to the recommendation if the ingredients list has more than five listed - don't eat it. Or too, if the ingredients lists looks like a well stocked storage closet for a Laboratory, don't eat it.
For those who have struggled with weight loss, this could explain the dreaded I Haven't Been Able to Lose Another Pound. The Plateau. Also an explanation why the public had such low chronic Dis-Ease rates back in the 50s, 60s'. Diet's closer to fresh grown, fresh prepared and not saturated with Omega Six's by the way livestock are rose today, or manipulated in Ultra Processed Foods. Great Grandma's bests menu's did not require a lab to produce.
This too, why some can end up feeling just plain lousy, sick if losing too much weight/fat at once.
While not mentioned in this article, there is also the habit of the body when dealing with the overload of so many toxic offenders, it often stores them in fat tissue, because the body can't use them and in turn how to deal with them in general. Keep in mind, the brain, nerves are heavy in fat.
More potential negatives when pursuing a healthy weight is the body also will store Heavy Metals, toxic to us in body fat also. Lead, Mercury, and others.
All these body responses to unwanted toxins underscore, underline the necessary need to reduce in a slow, but sure way, and how the Probiotics and Fiber are so valuable to potentially suck up and take out such things when losing weight.
These different body responses are also likely involved why some can experience hair loss, or have muscle loss, even dental problems. Feeling sick, lousy because of toxic overloads.
One strategy is to lower the calories down to a low range to trigger the weight loss, but then every three, four or so days add an extra few calories to stop the starvation mode to kick in - the disruption to how our body deals with fat described in the article. Once hitting your Size to Fit You, an actual healthy weight is reached, hold the calory rate there. Doc and others cover the best range of percentages for the best ratio for each healthy sourced Protein, Fat and Calories to maintain from start to finish. The percentages stay the same, the amount, size is what changes. Feed healthy percentages and adjust the ratios as if we already have a healthy body until we actually hit the Size that Fits Us. Then maintain. Much easier when feeling actually healthy. Just Sayn'
And you're right, Just, obesity and type 2 diabetes share a common characteristic: reduced gut microbial diversity. People who consume more dietary fiber from whole foods have a more diverse gut microbiota. Some of these monosaccharides can be fermented by the microbiota to form short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), primarily acetate, propionate, and butyrate. Butyrate can increase the thickness of the mucus layer, preventing the invasion of pathogenic bacteria and maintaining gut health. Furthermore, SCFAs can activate intestinal gluconeogenesis and induce the release of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), making the host feel satiated and reducing food intake.
In addition, fiber fermentation produces compounds that restore permeability in damaged epithelial cells, reduce inflammatory chemokines, and increase the anti-inflammatory marker IL-10, which could improve insulin resistance and diabetes management.
Polyphenols may have beneficial effects on human health. Recent evidence shows that some phenolic compounds can induce GLP-1 secretion by intestinal L cells and, therefore, could be useful for improving glucose homeostasis.
How to Increase Butyrate and GLP-1 Naturally
---Diet Rich in Fermentable Fiber: Consume legumes, whole grains, leafy green vegetables, garlic, onions, and green bananas.
---Resistant Starch: Foods like oats and legumes are potent prebiotics that increase butyrate production.
---Healthy Fats: such as EPA and DHA from fresh fish and low intake of omega-6 (Dr. Mercola recommends an ideal of 2 grams), from grass-fed animals.
And you're right, Just, obesity is a chronic, multifactorial metabolic disease that has become a global public health crisis. It is estimated that 2.6 billion people currently live with overweight or obesity, and it is projected that This figure is projected to exceed 4 billion by 2035. Its complex relationship with food production and consumption patterns demands sustainable solutions to reduce pressure on ecosystems and promote healthier lifestyles. Obesity affects more than a third of Americans and increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Interventional trials have consistently shown that consuming fresh foods low in ultra-processed foods reduces body fat in overweight and obese subjects, even while controlling for energy intake.
Combating obesity requires holistic strategies that address not only individual health but also the broader environmental impacts of food systems. A systematic review examined the relationship between plant-based diets and obesity, focusing on studies that assess body mass index (BMI) and body fat. The evidence suggests that adherence to a diet with sufficient vegetables and healthy fats low in omega-6 is associated with lower rates of obesity.
Six main dietary mechanisms that can lead to a reduction in body fat. These include (1) reduced calorie density, (2) improved gut microbiota symbiosis, (3) increased insulin sensitivity, (4) reduced trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), (5) activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), and (6) overexpression of mitochondrial uncoupling proteins.
Excessive consumption of high-calorie, low-nutrient foods, particularly those high in trans fats, sugar, and sodium, has led to a global obesity epidemic. This, in turn, increases the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer.
Obesity and type 2 diabetes share a common characteristic: reduced gut microbial diversity. People who consume more dietary fiber from whole foods have a more diverse gut microbiota. Some of these monosaccharides can be fermented to form short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) by the microbiota, mainly including acetate, propionate, and butyrate.
I keep reading about berberine and black pepper extract as a supplement for weight loss. Is there any truth to this?
Yes, current evidence suggests that berberine may modestly help with obesity and metabolic syndrome. The typical magnitude observed in trials is small to moderate: around 1–3 kg of weight loss and modest reductions in BMI and waist circumference, especially in people with insulin resistance or metabolic syndrome.
Some proposed mechanisms include:
• activation of AMPK (“cellular energy sensor”),
• improved insulin sensitivity,
• reduced hepatic lipogenesis,
• changes in gut microbiota,
• mild effect on appetite and postprandial glucose.
In practice, current evidence points to:
---useful as an adjunct,
---more effective in cases of insulin resistance/prediabetes,
---generally moderate effect,
---does not replace diet or exercise.
The AMPK pathway is usually summarized as follows:
AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) is a cellular energy sensor. It is activated when the cell "senses" a low energy level (↑AMP/ATP). When activated:
1) It inhibits lipogenesis (fat synthesis). 1) Phosphorylates and inhibits acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC)
2) Decreases malonyl-CoA, fatty acid synthesis, and the activity of lipogenic factors such as SREBP-1c
3) Increases fat oxidation, increases fatty acid uptake into mitochondria, and β-oxidation
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-025-01943-x?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2025)
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40001-025-02738-6?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2025)
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/pharmacology/articles/10.3389/fphar.2025.1572197/full?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2025)
As Dr. Mercola always advises, consider a healthy diet, and don't forget fiber.
1) The stable satiety effect of fiber, especially soluble fiber, is due to its ability to absorb water and form a viscous gel in the digestive tract. This promotes slow gastric acidity, producing a feeling of fullness after eating and stimulating the release of hormones like GLP-1 and PYY in the gut, which send direct signals to the brain to reduce appetite.
2) By preventing sharp spikes in blood glucose, fiber reduces the excessive secretion of insulin, the main hormone for fat storage, making it easier for the body to access its own adipose tissue reserves for energy.
3) High-fiber foods usually require more chewing time. This gives the brain time to register that the body is receiving food. Vegetables and legumes allow you to consume a larger volume of food with a significantly lower calorie intake compared to processed foods. Soluble fiber, such as oats, legumes, flax seeds, carrots, etc., forms a gel that reduces cholesterol and controls blood sugar. Insoluble fiber, such as wheat bran, fruit peels, nuts, and leafy greens, accelerates digestion and adds bulk. Combining whole grains, tubers, seeds, and plenty of cruciferous or leafy vegetables provides the full spectrum of benefits.
4) When fiber reaches the colon, it is fermented by the gut microbiota. This process produces byproducts called short-chain fatty acids, which improve insulin sensitivity and stimulate fat burning by increasing basal metabolic rate. Cooked and cooled rice or potatoes, and legumes, feed beneficial bacteria and improve metabolism.
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2024.1510564/full (2024)
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4168/5/4/88 (2025).--
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001435 (2026).-
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394137623_Evaluation_of_the_effect_of_dietary_soluble_corn_fiber_on_metabolic_activity_and_colonic_microbiota_composition_in_patients_with_dysbiosis_and_obesity#:~:text=In%20the%20baby%20and%20adult%20models%2C%20M%2DSHIME%C2%AE,increased%20SCFA%20production%20in%20all%20age%20groups.(2025).--
------------------------------------------------
SATIETY INDEX
The concept of the Satiety Index (SI) was popularized by the study of Dr. Susanna Holt. In the plant world, this index reveals surprising facts: not all carbohydrates are equally filling, and the structure of the food is just as important as its calories.
There are a few common characteristics of highly satiating foods.
1) Foods that are more filling (i.e., have a high satiety index) tend to have more protein. Protein is considered to be more filling than either carbohydrates or fats.
2) They also tend to have more fiber. Because fiber is not digested, it provides bulk. This bulk tends to help you feel full longer because it slows down emptying of the stomach and digestion time.
3) Highly satiating foods tend to have more volume for the same amount of calories; this means they tend to take up more space with water or air.
4) Highly satiating foods are also generally whole and less processed.
https://www.nolimitsfitnessfl.com/what-is-the-satiety-index (2018).----
https://optimisingnutrition.com/satiety-index/ (2023).---
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/15-incredibly-filling-foods#TOC_TITLE_HDR_3 (2023).-
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10534273/ (2023).-
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559033/ (2025).--
https://fruselva.com/plant-based-2026-health-science-and-innovation-for-transformative-eating/ (2026).—
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559033/ (2025).—
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001435 (2026).--
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559033/#:~:text=Issues%20of%20Concern.%20High%20consumption%20of%20ultraprocessed,from%20meeting%20the%20recommended%20dietary%20fiber%20intake. (2025).—
https://medium.com/@fittneedt/the-potato-has-been-lied-about-for-decades-4880851d9c46 (2025).-
Eliminate ultra-processed foods with added toxins that make them tastier and more calorie-dense, which contribute to all kinds of metabolic diseases. Along these lines, we can consider:
1. HYPERPALATABILITY
Ultra-processed foods (UPFs)—according to the NOVA classification—not only provide calories, but also alter several physiological and behavioral mechanisms that promote weight gain.
UPFs are designed with combinations of sugar, fat, salt, and flavor enhancers, which strongly activate the reward circuits (dopamine), increasing appetite, facilitating "eating for pleasure," and decreasing the feeling of satiety. See the graphic summary in the first link: In the ultra-processed diet, with approximately 500 kcal/day more than spontaneously consumed foods, participants gained weight, while those on the minimally processed diet lost weight. The diets were matched for calories, sugar, fat, fiber, and macronutrients.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7946062/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2019)
https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1005025&utm_source=chatgpt.com (2026)
2. LOW SATIETY
UPUs are typically low in fiber, low in actual protein, and high in calories “Fast”
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2026.1737280/full?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2026)
3. HIGH ENERGY DENSITY
Recent reviews continue to confirm that ultra-processed foods allow for the consumption of a large amount of energy in a small volume and very quickly.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37080461/ (2023)
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-025-01143-7?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2025)
4. ALTERATION OF THE INTESTINAL MICROBIOME
Ultra-processed foods reduce bacterial diversity and promote bacteria associated with obesity, leading to increased energy extraction from food and metabolic inflammation.
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2026.1800945/full?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2026)
https://www.washingtonpost.com/wellness/2025/10/08/what-to-eat-healthy-gut-microbiome/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2025)
5. HORMONAL IMPACT (INSULIN, LEPTIN, GHRELIN)
Rapid glucose spikes cause hyperinsulinemia and possible leptin resistance, leading to a lack of satiety. Furthermore, altered ghrelin levels trigger increased hunger. This creates a vicious cycle of frequent hunger and greater fat storage.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41743894/ (2026)
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2026.1737280/full?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2026)
6. LOWER ENERGY EXPENDITURE AFTER EATING
The same NIH study showed that processed foods result in a lower thermic effect of food, with less digestive energy expenditure and increased fat storage.
https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-study-finds-heavily-processed-foods-cause-overeating-weight-gain?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2029)
7. EATING FASTER
Processed foods are generally easy to chew and ready to eat, which means you eat more before your brain registers satiety.
General References
https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(19)30248-7?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2018)
https://www.bmj.com/content/365/bmj.l1949?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2019)
https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-study-finds-heavily-processed-foods-cause-overeating-weight-gain?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2019)
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7946062/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2021)
https://www.bmj.com/content/383/bmj-2023-075294?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2023)
https://www.bmj.com/content/383/bmj-2023-075354/related?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2023)
https://www.bmj.com/content/384/bmj-2023-077310?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2024)
https://www.bmj.com/content/384/bmj-2023-077310/related?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2024)
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2026.1737280/full?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2025)
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-025-01143-7?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2025)
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2026)
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2026.1737280/full?utm_source=chatgpt.com (2026)
-----------
AN EXAMPLE OF A CLEARLY “CHEMICALLY-INDUSTRIAL” ULTRA-PROCESSED “FOOD” IN 2026: FLAMIN' HOT CHEETOS
Actual composition (USA 2026). According to recent commercial labels:
--Enriched corn flour
--Vegetable oils (corn/canola/sunflower)
--Maltodextrin
--MSG (monosodium glutamate)
--Yeast extract
--Hydrolyzed corn protein
--Sugar
--Citric acid
--Natural and artificial flavors
--Whey
--Disodium inosinate
--Disodium guanylate
--Sodium diacetate
--Artificial colors: Red 40 Lake, Yellow 6 Lake, Yellow 6, Yellow 5
It is designed to maximize brain reward. Companies literally seek the point of maximum food pleasure, endorphin release, and sensory reinforcement. In many people, this increases the compulsive behavior of "keeping eating."
Ultra-processed additives: Contains multiple flavor enhancers: MSG, inosinate, guanylate, and hydrolyzed protein. All of these increase the perception of "umami" flavor and palatability.
California has even passed school restrictions on products with these additives.
TYPICAL RESULT: HIGH CALORIES + LITTLE SATIETY + DESIRE FOR MORE.
https://www.flaminhot.com/products/cheetos-crunchy-flamin-hot-cheese-flavored-snacks?utm_source=chatgpt.com
https://www.ingredientinspector.org/rapid-reviews/whats-in-flamin-hot-cheetos?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Deep dive into the weeds Gui, showing how the old commercials tag line - betcha can't eat just one., had much more behind the slogan than it would have appeared - back in the day! Adds weight to the recommendation if the ingredients list has more than five listed - don't eat it. Or too, if the ingredients lists looks like a well stocked storage closet for a Laboratory, don't eat it.
For those who have struggled with weight loss, this could explain the dreaded I Haven't Been Able to Lose Another Pound. The Plateau. Also an explanation why the public had such low chronic Dis-Ease rates back in the 50s, 60s'. Diet's closer to fresh grown, fresh prepared and not saturated with Omega Six's by the way livestock are rose today, or manipulated in Ultra Processed Foods. Great Grandma's bests menu's did not require a lab to produce.
This too, why some can end up feeling just plain lousy, sick if losing too much weight/fat at once.
While not mentioned in this article, there is also the habit of the body when dealing with the overload of so many toxic offenders, it often stores them in fat tissue, because the body can't use them and in turn how to deal with them in general. Keep in mind, the brain, nerves are heavy in fat.
More potential negatives when pursuing a healthy weight is the body also will store Heavy Metals, toxic to us in body fat also. Lead, Mercury, and others.
All these body responses to unwanted toxins underscore, underline the necessary need to reduce in a slow, but sure way, and how the Probiotics and Fiber are so valuable to potentially suck up and take out such things when losing weight.
These different body responses are also likely involved why some can experience hair loss, or have muscle loss, even dental problems. Feeling sick, lousy because of toxic overloads.
One strategy is to lower the calories down to a low range to trigger the weight loss, but then every three, four or so days add an extra few calories to stop the starvation mode to kick in - the disruption to how our body deals with fat described in the article. Once hitting your Size to Fit You, an actual healthy weight is reached, hold the calory rate there. Doc and others cover the best range of percentages for the best ratio for each healthy sourced Protein, Fat and Calories to maintain from start to finish. The percentages stay the same, the amount, size is what changes. Feed healthy percentages and adjust the ratios as if we already have a healthy body until we actually hit the Size that Fits Us. Then maintain. Much easier when feeling actually healthy. Just Sayn'
And you're right, Just, obesity and type 2 diabetes share a common characteristic: reduced gut microbial diversity. People who consume more dietary fiber from whole foods have a more diverse gut microbiota. Some of these monosaccharides can be fermented by the microbiota to form short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), primarily acetate, propionate, and butyrate. Butyrate can increase the thickness of the mucus layer, preventing the invasion of pathogenic bacteria and maintaining gut health. Furthermore, SCFAs can activate intestinal gluconeogenesis and induce the release of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), making the host feel satiated and reducing food intake.
In addition, fiber fermentation produces compounds that restore permeability in damaged epithelial cells, reduce inflammatory chemokines, and increase the anti-inflammatory marker IL-10, which could improve insulin resistance and diabetes management.
Polyphenols may have beneficial effects on human health. Recent evidence shows that some phenolic compounds can induce GLP-1 secretion by intestinal L cells and, therefore, could be useful for improving glucose homeostasis.
How to Increase Butyrate and GLP-1 Naturally
---Diet Rich in Fermentable Fiber: Consume legumes, whole grains, leafy green vegetables, garlic, onions, and green bananas.
---Resistant Starch: Foods like oats and legumes are potent prebiotics that increase butyrate production.
---Healthy Fats: such as EPA and DHA from fresh fish and low intake of omega-6 (Dr. Mercola recommends an ideal of 2 grams), from grass-fed animals.
--- https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/1/107 (2020).--
https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/26/3/703 (2021).--
https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/16/14/2240 (2024).--
https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/12/5/1023 (2023).--
https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/17/11/1753 (2025).--
And you're right, Just, obesity is a chronic, multifactorial metabolic disease that has become a global public health crisis. It is estimated that 2.6 billion people currently live with overweight or obesity, and it is projected that This figure is projected to exceed 4 billion by 2035. Its complex relationship with food production and consumption patterns demands sustainable solutions to reduce pressure on ecosystems and promote healthier lifestyles. Obesity affects more than a third of Americans and increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Interventional trials have consistently shown that consuming fresh foods low in ultra-processed foods reduces body fat in overweight and obese subjects, even while controlling for energy intake.
Combating obesity requires holistic strategies that address not only individual health but also the broader environmental impacts of food systems. A systematic review examined the relationship between plant-based diets and obesity, focusing on studies that assess body mass index (BMI) and body fat. The evidence suggests that adherence to a diet with sufficient vegetables and healthy fats low in omega-6 is associated with lower rates of obesity.
Six main dietary mechanisms that can lead to a reduction in body fat. These include (1) reduced calorie density, (2) improved gut microbiota symbiosis, (3) increased insulin sensitivity, (4) reduced trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), (5) activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), and (6) overexpression of mitochondrial uncoupling proteins.
Excessive consumption of high-calorie, low-nutrient foods, particularly those high in trans fats, sugar, and sodium, has led to a global obesity epidemic. This, in turn, increases the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer.
Obesity and type 2 diabetes share a common characteristic: reduced gut microbial diversity. People who consume more dietary fiber from whole foods have a more diverse gut microbiota. Some of these monosaccharides can be fermented to form short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) by the microbiota, mainly including acetate, propionate, and butyrate.
https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/11/11/2712 (2019).--
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2023.1108088/full (2023).--
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12944-023-01803-5 (2023).--
https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/12/5/1023 (2023).--
https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/16/14/2240 (2024).--
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/obr.13901 (2025)
https://lseee.net/index.php/ms/article/view/1041 (2025).--
https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/17/11/1753 (2025).--
https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/13/9/2173 (2025).---
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/obr.70110 (2026)
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/15/1/83 (2026)